Nero Redux

Domiti’nos

When Emperor Titus died unexpectedly, some wondered if Domitian might have had something to do with it. Vespasian's second son, Domitian, lived in the shadow of his heroic father and older brother. He jealously resented Titus, and at times, he plotted against him.

The Praetorian Guard declared Domitian as emperor on the day after Titus' death. The next day, the senate confirmed him in the office. He ruled Rome for fifteen years-longer than his father and brother combined and longer than any emperor since Claudius.

Domitian feared the gods and religiously served them. He especially honored Jupiter (Zeus) and Minerva. He restored the temple of Jupiter (which had burned during Titus' reign) and covered it with a golden roof. Not only did he reverence the gods, but he also reverenced himself as a god. Neither his father nor his brother had taken seriously their place in the pantheon of Rome's emperor cult. Domitian took his role as a god very seriously. He decorated Rome with hundreds of images of himself, many of them of silver and gold, and he built a temple for the worship of the Flavian family. He demanded that everyone address him as "Our lord and our god." He had a strange, sadistic streak reminiscent of Nero. The Roman historian Suetonius relates the following incident from the beginning of his reign:

At the beginning of his reign, he used to spend hours in seclusion every day, doing nothing but catching flies and stabbing them with an extremely sharp stylus. Once it happened when some caller asked if anyone was in the palace with Caesar. Vibius Crispus made the witty reply, "Not even a fly." (Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars: Domitian 3)

Like Nero, Domitian loved to host games and spectacles. He sponsored chariot races in the circuses. He booked the colosseum with grand battles between armies of gladiators. He filled the arena with water for naval battles. He sponsored nighttime shows in which gladiators fought by torchlight. Shows with wild beasts and hunts took place. He even introduced women to the gladiatorial combats.

Domitian also imitated Nero in his affection for the arts, poetry, music, competition, and games. At the same time, he strictly controlled the content of artistic expression, forbidding any criticism of Rome, the government, or himself.

Superstition and paranoia drove Domitian all his life. He lived in fear of assassination, and he often consulted astrologers and divine oracles about his fate. He feared offending the gods because he relied on them to protect him from the plots of his enemies. He suspected treachery all around him, and he used to say, "The sad thing is that a prince's suspicions are never believed until he is dead."

His paranoia was justified. His suppression of the senate earned the hatred of the senators. His campaigns against corruption earned the hatred of the corrupt. He put to death many senators, among them men of great rank, on charges of plotting revolution. He put to death men he merely suspected. Domitian put to death men who made even benign jests about him. He charged them with the crime of committing an insult against majesty.

In 89 CE, the governor over Germania Superior revolted with two legions. He did not get far. Domitian had the loyal allegiance of Rome's armies. He bought their loyalty when he increased their pay by a third. The legions quickly defeated the rebels. Domitian suspected that the revolt had its origin among his enemies in the capital. Suetonius writes, "After his victory in the civil war, he became even more cruel, and to discover any conspirators who were in hiding, he tortured many of the opposite party by a new form of inquisition: inserting fire in their orifices. He also cut off the hands of some of them." Everyone lived in fear of Domitian's paranoid suspicions and cruel interrogations. "He became an object of terror and hatred to all" (Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars: Domitian 10).

All the while, Domitian remained completely oblivious to the presence of a secret society called Christians that was flourishing under his nose in Rome and spreading throughout his whole empire.

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

The Assembly at Roma

The Neronian persecutions devastated the assembly of believers in Rome. In the years since then, the community slowly recovered. The trauma of the Neronian holocaust strengthened the resolve of those who survived. They kept a low profile and tried to keep their identity as Christians secret.

The death of Nero brought relief to the community. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius did not reign long enough to institute new pogroms. Vespasian lifted his hand against the house of David, but he did not single out the disciples of Yeshua for persecution. Titus showed no interest in the believers.

After the war, a new era of peace under the Flavian emperors encouraged new growth. The believers in Rome shared their faith with the Roman people more boldly, and many people joined the disciples of Yeshua. The believers now identified themselves as "Christians." The name had taken on a universal currency and now applied to all followers and devotees of Yeshua of Nazareth, both Jews and Gentiles.

The Roman Christians hid beneath the shadow of the large Jewish community. They did not need churches of their own; they went to the regular synagogues to worship and hear the Torah. The Gentiles attended as God-fearers; the Jewish believers integrated naturally into the synagogue communities. The believers also gathered together, according to their custom, in small communities of disciples in one another's homes to break bread in sacred meals, pray together, and learn. They did so clandestinely and only in small groups, lest they attract unwanted attention from the authorities.

Irenaeus says, "Many were still alive at that time who had been taught directly by the apostles" (Against Heresies 3.3). They could relate the teachings of Peter and Paul as they remembered them. For Scriptures, they used primarily the Septuagint, just as other Diaspora communities did. They also began to collect the writings of the apostles. They had the Gospel of Mark, the writings of Luke, and several apostolic epistles. They read these aloud in their community gatherings. They ranked the Apostolic Writings on a level with the holy, inspired Scripture of the Tanach. They believed that the words of the apostles were written "truthfully under the inspiration of the Spirit" (I Clement 47:4).

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

The Three Elders: Linos, Kletos, and Ke’Limis

The Christians in Rome looked to the disciples of the apostles for leadership. Early church lists disagree about the succession of Rome's first bishops. Most name Linus as the immediate successor of the apostles, but some sources might indicate a shared leadership among three men: Linus, Anacletus, and Clement of Rome. Tradition identifies Clement and Anacletus as disciples of Simon Peter and Linus as a disciple of Paul.

Paul mentions both Linus and Clement in his epistles. Shortly before his death, Paul included Linus among the few brothers in Rome who were still in contact with him during his second imprisonment (2 Timothy 4:21. Cf. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.2.I). In his epistle to the Philippians, Paul referred to Clement as his fellow worker in Rome (Philippians 4:3). Irenaeus says, "Clement had seen the blessed apostles and conversed with them, their teaching was still ringing in his ears" (Against Heresies 3-3).

Linus died in the second year of Titus (8I CE). Anacletus died in the twelfth year of Domitian (93 CE), leaving Clement as the last of the original three elders presiding over the assembly of believers in Rome (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.13.I, 3.15.1).

When Clement first received theological inquiries from the assembly of believers in Corinth and the distressing news about the unrest in their congregations, he replied with the Epistle of I Clement. Apparently, it was some time before he was able to compose the response and safely send it to the Corinthians. In the epistle, he explains to the Corinthian believers that he wanted to send a reply immediately, but "sudden and successive calamitous events befell" the believers in Rome and prevented him from doing so for some time (I Clement I:1). What sudden, successive, calamitous events befell the believers in Rome?

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Nero Redux

In the last years of his reign, the paranoid and superstitious Emperor Domitian turned his attention to the sect of the Christians. He made a series of arrests and executions. The believers in Rome looked at Domitian as a second Nero.

Even after his death, the early Christians continued to think of Nero as the antichrist. They had prophecies about a Nero Redux (Restored Nero) coming to power one day. In the first years after Nero's death, rumors circulated, claiming that he had not died but was gathering an army and would soon return. The Sibylline Oracles frequently mention the return of a matricidal fugitive from the ends of the earth who shall overpower all things and make himself equal to God. From time to time, various imposters tried to pass themselves off as Nero. This may help explain why early Christian tradition anticipated that Nero Redux would one day return as the world deceiver: "I saw one of his heads as if it had been slain, and his fatal wound was healed. And the whole earth was amazed and followed after the beast" (Revelation 13:3).

In the days of Domitian's persecution, the believers spoke about Domitian as a second Nero. They saw him as a fulfillment of the Nero Redux prophecies about the antichrist.

Tertullian compared the two Caesars: "Domitian possessed a share of Nero's cruelty. He attempted once to do the same thing that the latter did" (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.20.7). Eusebius also called him Nero's successor:

Domitian had already demonstrated great cruelty toward many.

He unjustly put to death large numbers of aristocratic and notable men at Rome. Without just cause, he exiled and confiscated the property of a great many other illustrious men. Finally, he became a successor to Nero in his hatred and enmity toward God. He was, in fact, the second emperor to stir up a persecution against us, although his father Vespasian had done nothing to single us out. (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.17.I)

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Imperial Financial Problems

What inspired Domitian to attack the believers actively? It all started with the Jewish tax.

Near the end of his reign, Domitian's administration suffered financial problems. He had spent generously on rebuilding the damaged sections of Rome. Unlike his conservative father, he also spent generously on games, shows, and spectacles. The army caused the biggest drag on his budget. The paranoid emperor knew that others before him had been unseated when unhappy legions turned against their emperor. He did his best to keep his legions happy. He increased their pay beyond what the empire could afford. He considered reducing the size of the army to compensate, but Domitian's empire was too large and its enemies too numerous to manage without a robust army. A smaller, more efficient military might balance the budget, but it could not keep the borders secure or put down uprisings.

Finally, Domitian resorted to doing what Nero and Caligula had done before him-robbing his own citizens: "The property of the living and the dead was seized everywhere on any charge brought by an accuser. It was enough to allege any action or word derogatory to the majesty of the prince. Estates of those in no way connected with him were confiscated" (Lives of the Caesars: Domitian 12.1-2). In other words, whenever a wealthy Roman citizen was accused of an offense against the emperor's honor, Domitian prosecuted the offense and seized the man's assets.

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Prosecuting Tax Evaders

Domitian needed still more revenue, so he raised taxes. He also vigorously pursued tax evaders. Suetonius says, "Besides other taxes, the tax on the Jews was levied with utmost rigor" (Lives of the Caesars: Domitian 12.1-2).

In those days, the Romans required every Jew to pay an annual poll tax of two drachmas per head. The tax applied to every Jewish man, woman, and child in the empire. Domitian's father, Vespasian, first introduced the Fiscus Judaicus (Jewish tax) on the pretense of recouping imperial expenses from the Jewish War. The proceeds went toward the rebuilding of the temple of Zeus, Jupiter Capitoline, the main temple in Rome. Long after the Flavians completed the new temple, however, they continued to collect the Jewish tax. It had become an important part of their annual revenue.

Roman law required every Jew to pay the tax, but the law did not precisely define who was a Jew. That ambiguity sometimes made God-fearing Gentile believers liable for the tax as well. The Roman authorities did not distinguish between halachic Jews and people who merely practiced aspects of Judaism. In the eyes of the tax authorities, keeping the Sabbath or Jewish dietary laws or other Jewish customs might be sufficient to make a person and his household liable for the tax. Naturally, this resulted in Gentile God-fearers attempting to diminish or conceal their associations with Judaism. Some Jews also tried to conceal their Jewish identity to avoid the tax.

Domitian's revenue-hungry administration pursued the tax evaders. Anyone suspected of being Jewish or accused of engaging in the Jewish superstition needed to appear before a local tribunal to prove that he or she was not Jewish. Suetonius writes, "Those who concealed their Jewish origin and did not pay the tribute levied upon their people were prosecuted. I recall being present in my youth when a ninety-year-old man was examined by the procurator in front of a crowded court, to see whether or not he was circumcised."

If the court convicted someone of being Jewish and having failed to pay the required tax, the state might imprison him until he could pay the outstanding taxes for his household along with any associated fines and penalties, or it might execute him. If he had possessions and property, the state confiscated them.

The revenue garnered from the tax evaders encouraged Domitian to push the program further. He may have called upon the general public to inform the government about known Jews in their midst. Many informers came forward. This is how Domitian discovered a whole secret society of tax evaders right under his nose in Rome: God-fearing Gentile believers. They claimed that they were not Jewish, yet they lived as if they were. They called themselves "Christians."

Suetonius writes about the arrest and prosecution of Gentiles "who did not publicly acknowledge the Jewish faith but lived as Jews" (Lives of the Caesars: Domitian 12.1-2). The God-fearing Gentile believers did not publicly acknowledge their faith because they feared arrest and persecution. They did not pay the Fiscus Judaicus because they were not Jewish. Domitian issued legislation making anyone who merely "lived as Jews" liable for the tax. Apparently, he called on the population to report friends, neighbors, and relatives who worshiped the Jewish God and kept Jewish customs. Slaves reported their owners. Neighbors reported neighbors. Our Master predicted, "Brother will betray brother to death, and a father his child; and children will rise up against parents and cause them to be put to death... a man's enemies will be the members of his household" (Matthew 10:21, 36).

According to Domitian, anyone who rested on the Jewish Sabbath was liable for the Fiscus Judaicus. He arrested them and seized their property. He banished some to exile. Others he put to death.

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

The Atheists

The legislation against Jewish tax evaders sparked a witch-hunt in Rome. Many of the prosecutions were baseless. Slaves who resented their owners reported their masters to be living as Jews. Anyone who had a motivation to see someone else ruined took advantage of the opportunity and informed on his enemy. The investigations revealed that many of the charges had no basis. At the same time, the courts found that a surprising number of the accusations had merit. At that time, Josephus was living in Rome, in the court of Domitian, working on a treatise in defense of Judaism titled Against Apion. In that book, he described the ubiquitous, God-fearer phenomenon. He observed Gentile God-fearers keeping the Sabbath, the holidays, the fast days, and even some of the dietary laws:

For a long time, a multitude of humanity has demonstrated a great inclination to follow our religious observances. There is no city of the Greeks, nor of the barbarians, nor any nation anywhere, where our custom of resting on the seventh day has not come to be practiced, and where our fast days, our kindling of lamps, and many of our dietary prohibitions are not observed. These [Gentiles] also try to imitate our social unity with one another, our charitable distribution of our goods, our competence in our trades, and our endurance under trials we face on account of our laws. The most amazing aspect of this is that our Law has no incentive of pleasure that would allure men. It prevails by its own force, and just as God pervades the whole world, so has our Law passed through the whole world as well. (Against Apion 2:282-284/xxxix)

The quantity of God-fearing Gentiles who "lived as Jews" shocked Domitian. The Christians were in every city, and some lived even among the upper-class aristocrats of Rome. As he learned more about them, he dreaded and feared them.

He already disliked the Jews. He had always wondered if the Jews might attempt another revolt or attempt to avenge themselves against his family. His superstitious mind and constant paranoia made him fear their God, whose Temple his family had destroyed. The discovery of thousands of "secret Jews" right under his nose fed those fears.

The "secret Jews" did seem to be organizing politically against him. They seemed to have no loyalty to Rome. They followed a different King—a Jewish King-and they identified themselves as citizens of His kingdom. They claimed that their King would soon topple Rome and conquer the whole world.

If Domitian looked into the imperial records, he would have found that the Christians were known to be followers of a particularly reprehensible form of the Jewish superstition. He may have discovered that they were responsible for the great fire of Rome in 66 CE.

Domitian quickly discovered that the Christians were "atheists." According to Roman definition, anyone who did not worship the gods was guilty of the crime of atheism. Domitian found that the Gentile Christians had abandoned their ancestral gods in favor of exclusive attachment to the Jewish God. They did not worship the idols. They did not worship the Caesar. They did not bow before his image or make any offering to him, nor did they address him as "Our master and our god." They denied the gods of Rome their customary dues. They blasphemed against the gods, calling them dead, lifeless idols inhabited only by evil demons. They tried to persuade others to also abandon the gods. The atheism of the Christians sorely troubled the deeply religious emperor.

Domitian put the Christians to death for the crime of atheism and confiscated their property. Jewish believers were exempt from these actions. Roman law guaranteed Jews the right to practice monotheism, but that Jewish right did not extend to Gentiles who chose to adopt Jewish superstition. The Roman historian Cassius Dio says, "Many who had drifted into Jewish ways were put to death, and the rest were at least deprived of their property" (Roman History 67.14.I-2).

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Flaviyos Klemen and Domitilah

Domitian's anxiety about the Jews intensified when he learned that the Christian infection had reached high Roman society, even his own family.

His beloved cousin, Flavius Clemens, the son of his uncle Sabinus, had grown up alongside Domitian during their youth. Clemens, serving as consul, was married to Domitian's niece, Flavia Domitilla. Together, they were Domitian's closest surviving relatives.

Clemens and Domitilla had two sons, whom Domitian adored as his own. Childless himself, Domitian named these boys heirs to his throne, renaming one Vespasian and the other Domitian and providing them with the best education.

However, Domitian remained unaware that Clemens and Domitilla had themselves embraced Jewish beliefs and become God-fearers. Lacking the discernment to differentiate between Jews and Jewish believers, Domitian blamed the Jewish people collectively for spreading the Christian supersti-tion, accusing them of infecting loyal Romans throughout the empire. His suspicion thus fell indiscriminately upon all Jews.

The Talmud relates that Domitian considered purging the Jews from the empire. He consulted his advisors about possible measures against them. According to the Acts of John at Rome, Domitian drafted an edict banishing all Jews from Rome, as Emperor Claudius had previously done. Midrash Rabbah describes an even harsher decree by Domitian's government: "The Roman Senate issued a decree that within thirty days, no Jew would be found in the world."

This midrash tells of a high-ranking God-fearing senator-often identified with Flavius Clemens-who secretly warned Rabban Gamliel, Rabbi Yehoshua, and Rabbi Akiva about the impending anti-Jewish decree. Rabban Gamliel and his colleagues Rabbi Yehoshua and Rabbi Akiva undertook an embassy to Rome and set sail at once.

A story in the Talmud names this senator Ketiah bar Shalom, who defended the Jews before Domitian, was condemned to death, and circumcised himself prior to execution (Deuteronomy Rabbah 2:25; b.Avodah Zarah Iob).

The historical account of Flavius Clemens and Domitilla can be assembled from the historians Suetonius, Cassius Dio, and Eusebius. Suetonius says, "Domitian put to death Flavius Clemens, suddenly and on a very slight suspicion, almost before the end of his consulship, and yet Flavius was a man of most contemptible laziness." This indicates that Flavius Clemens was a Sabbath-keeper. Roman writers referred to Sabbath-keeping as "laziness." Cassius Dio explains that Domitian put Flavius Clemens to death because he had "drifted into Jewish ways" and become an "atheist." He says that Domitian banished Domitilla for the same crime:

The same year Domitian slew, along with many others, Flavius Clemens the consul, although he was a cousin and had married Flavia Domitilla, who was also a relative of the emperor's. The charge brought against them both was that of atheism, a charge on which many others who drifted into Jewish ways were put to death, and the rest were at least deprived of their property. Domitilla was merely banished to Pandataria. (Cassius Dio, Roman History 67.14.1-2)

Eusebius adds two important details to the story. He reports that this happened in Domitian's fifteenth year, that is, 95 CE. He also reports that Domitilla went into exile because of her witness for Yeshua:

In the fifteenth year of Domitian, Flavia Domitilla, daughter of a sister of [Domitian and wife to] Flavius Clement, who at that time was one of the consuls of Rome, was exiled with many others to the island of Pontia in consequence of testimony borne to Christ. (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.18.4)

We may assume that Flavius Clemens and Domitilla stood trial before Domitian's tribunal and admitted to being Christians and Jewish sympathizers. They refused to worship the Roman gods, and they refused to address Domitian as "my lord and my god." Domitian convicted them as atheists. He sentenced his cousin Clemens to death. He banished his niece Domitilla to an island off the coast of Italy. Before the sentences were carried out, Domitilla urged her husband to circumcise himself so that he could die as a Jew. Much to the astonishment of Rabban Gamliel and his colleagues, the man did so before his death.

This remarkable story means that, for a short while, a Christian family stood in line to inherit the Roman Empire near the end of the first century. The sons of Domitilla and Clemens were the heirs apparent, and Domitian never named another successor.

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Embassy to Kaiser

Part of the story seems to be preserved in the apocryphal Acts of John at Rome. Acts of John at Rome appears at the beginning of some manuscripts of the apocryphal Acts of John, but they are not from the same source. Scholars agree that the first seventeen chapters of the long version of Acts of John belong to a completely independent apocryphal story, which they now refer to as Acts of John at Rome. The age of the source is uncertain, but its content is unusually Jewish for apocryphal Christian literature. It lacks the anti-Semitic, Gnostic, and encratic elements common to other apocryphal sources. It describes the Jews as courageous and righteous men, even though they are not Yeshua-believers. Although the source cannot be considered reliable, it seems to fit accurately with what we have already learned about the persecution under Domitian:

Domitian, having got possession of the kingdom, along with his other wrongful acts, set himself also to make a persecution against the righteous men. For, having learned that the city was filled with Jews, remembering the orders given by his father about them, he purposed casting them all out of the city of the Romans. (Acts of John at Rome 1)

The statement that he "learned the city was filled with Jews" seems to refer to his discovery of the numerous God-fearing Gentile believers in Rome. The statement that Domitian remembered "the orders given by his father" about the Jews could refer to the Fiscus Judaicus. Vespasian had ordered a tax on all Jews. It might also be a reference to Vespasian's campaign against the house of David.

According to Acts of John at Rome, when Domitian announced his plan to banish all the Jews from Rome, some "courageous Jews" stepped forward and presented him with a written entreaty, asking him to repeal the measure. The document clarified the differences between Jews and the "new and strange people... under the strange name Christian." It placed the blame for violations of Roman "laws, practices, and policy" on the new sect:

O Domitian, Caesar and king of all the world! All of us who are Jews beg of you, as suppliants we humbly beseech your power. Please do not banish us from before your divine and goodly face, for we are obedient to you and to all Roman customs, laws, practices, and policies, committing no offense, but being of the same mind with the Romans. But there is a new and strange people. They neither conform with other peoples nor do they consent to the religious observance of the Jews: they are uncircumcised, misanthropists, lawless, subverting whole houses, proclaiming a man as divine, all assembling together under the strange name of Christian. These men reject God, paying no heed to the law given by Him, for they proclaim a man born of ourselves to be the Son of God. His parents and brothers and all his family were of the Hebrew race, but because of his great blasphemy and wicked tricks we gave him up to be crucified. Now they add another blasphemous lie to the first one. They claim that this one who was nailed up and buried has risen from the dead. More than this, they falsely assert that he has been taken up in clouds into the heavens. (Acts of John at Rome)

There is nothing implausible about the leadership of the Jewish community attempting to distance itself from the believers by educating Domitian on the differences between non-Messianic Jews and the followers of Yeshua. Generally speaking, Jews did not proselytize. The believers did. The Jewish people in the Diaspora did not blaspheme the gods of the idolaters, nor did they attempt to convert idolaters into monotheists. The believers did. Jews did not encourage God-fearers to abandon the worship of their ancestral gods or that of Caesar. The believers did. The Jewish community lived according to the Roman law that they were "not to show contempt for the religious observances of other nations" (Josephus, Antiquities 19:290/v.3). Believers in Yeshua did all of those things, and those were the things for which Domitian wanted to strike against the Jewish people. Therefore, it was in the best interest of the Jewish people to distance themselves from believers in Yeshua.

The letter to Domitian attempted to remove the Jewish people from under the emperor's wrath by shifting all blame for the God-fearer phenomenon over to the believers. If there was such a document, could the "courageous Jews" who authored and presented it have been Gamliel II and his colleagues from Yavneh? Rabbinic tradition records that Gamliel and his colleagues made an urgent diplomatic trip to Rome around the end of Domitian's administration. After the death of Flavius Clemens and the exile of Domitilla, they might have presented the document to Domitian along with a generous gift raised from the Jews of Syria.

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Time of Tribulation

Those, then, who were found in the time of Domitian's rage, and who reaped the fruit of patience, and were crowned in the triumphant contest against the works of the devil, received the repose of incorruption. (Acts of John at Rome)

Domitian realized that only certain Jews should be implicated with the Christians. According to the Acts of John at Rome, he "ordered the Senate to publish a decree that they should put to death all who confessed themselves to be Christians." Since the days of Nero, the Romans had put believers to death on charges of conspiracy, atheism, and majesty crimes (dishonoring the emperor), but none of the emperors issued any official legislation specifically singling out the believers. The new law brought the death sentence to anyone admitting to be a Christian. In the eyes of the Roman law, the Christian sect of Judaism officially became an illegal superstition (superstitio illicita) - no longer part of Judaism.

The book of Revelation addresses the persecution under Domitian. Most scholars date the composition of the book of Revelation to Domitian's last years. The second-century writer Irenaeus says, "[The vision of the Revelation] was not seen long ago, but almost in our time, towards the end of Domitian's reign" (Irenaeus, Against Heresies 5.30.3).

As explained above, the believers who suffered under Domitian looked on him as a new Nero and antichrist. Who else but the antichrist would demand to be addressed as "my lord and my god"? His images cluttered the city of Rome and the whole empire. He demanded worship. Gentile believers who would not "worship the beast and his image" went to their deaths or into exile, condemned as atheists and Christians. Gentile believers had it the worst. They could not plead exemption from the atheism charges on the basis of their Jewishness. If they did not have citizenship, they could face crucifixion, the arena, or any manner of ugly death.

Roman law protected Roman citizens from being put to death by torture. A Roman citizen had the right to beheading. Believers like Flavius Clemens, who had full Roman citizenship, were among those "beheaded because of their testimony of Yeshua and because of the word of God... those who had not worshiped the beast or his image" (Revelation 20:4). Other believers, like Domitilla, went into exile, as it says, "If anyone is destined for captivity, to captivity he goes; if anyone kills with the sword, with the sword he must be killed. Here is the perseverance and the faith of the saints" (Revelation I3:10).

Anyone accused of being a "Christian" needed to renounce the name of the Messiah before a tribunal. Gentiles accused of being Christians could dispel the charges only by offering worship to Domitian's image and those of the gods.

The evidence in the book of Revelation indicates that the persecution under Domitian spread throughout the empire. At the beginning of the book of Revelation, the Master addresses seven primary assemblies under John's apostolate in Asia Minor (Revelation 2-3).

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Ephesus: Preserving in Efsos

Revelation 2:1-7

Ephesus was still the center of the Yeshua movement in Asia Minor. The Apostle Paul and his disciple Timothy had served in Ephesus for several years, and the Apostle John had an academy there after them. The fame of the community of Christians at Ephesus attracted false prophets and false apostles. The Master praised the Ephesian believers for not falling under the sway of false apostles. He praised them, saying, "I know your deeds and your toil and perseverance, and that you cannot tolerate evil men, and you put to the test those who call themselves apostles, and they are not, and you found them to be false" (Revelation 2:2).

When the new law against the Christians came to Ephesus, the believers there persevered and endured persecution and tribulation for the sake of the name of Yeshua. The Master congratulated them, "You have perseverance and have endured for My name's sake, and have not grown weary" (Revelation 2:3).

Nevertheless, He charged them with abandoning the zeal they had for keeping the commandments in earlier days. They had forgotten their first love and let apathy diminish their service to the King and their practice of Torah. The Master said, "Remember from where you have fallen, and repent and do the deeds you did at first; or else I am coming to you and will remove your lampstand out of its place—unless you repent" (Revelation 2:5).

The Master encouraged them to stand fast against the coming persecution and promised them, "To him who overcomes, I will grant to eat of the tree of life which is in the Paradise of God" (Revelation 2:7).

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Smyrna: Tribulation in Zemirena

Revelation 2:8-II

The large metropolis of Smyrna (modern izmir, Turkey) sat on the Aegean coast not far north of Ephesus. A significant Jewish population made their home there. The gospel probably took root in Smyrna thanks to Paul's efforts in the area while he labored at Ephesus. Up until Domitian's decree against Christians, the believers in Smyrna were probably well-integrated with the local Jewish community. After the new decree that condemned Christians and exonerated non-Messianic Jews reached Smyrna, some members of the local Jewish community denounced the believers to the authorities, thereby earning the bitter epithet "synagogue of Satan" (Revelation 2:9). They informed the authorities, "These people are not Jews; they are members of the illegal Christian superstition." The Master reverses their words: "I know the slander of those who say they are Jews and are not" (Revelation 2:9 ESV). He called them a synagogue of Satan. "Satan" means "the accuser." When they denounced the believers as "Christians" before the authorities, they became agents of "the accuser of the brethren" (Revelation 12:10).

The term "synagogue of Satan" is a favorite for anti-Semites, but in the context of Revelation, it refers only to those Jews who informed on the believers, not the entire Jewish community, and certainly not Jewish synagogues in general. Likewise, proponents of replacement theology and variations on Two-House/British Israel teachings use the term "those who say they are Jews and are not" to diminish Jewish claims of pedigree and identity. In the context, however, the phrase is meant as an ironic reproach against Jews who informed on the believers.

The book of Revelation attempts to fortify the believers in Smyrna for the consequences of that betrayal, and it tells them to prepare for the worst:

Do not fear what you are about to sufter. Behold, the devil is about to cast some of you into prison, so that you will be tested, and you will have tribulation for ten days. Be faithful until death, and I will give you the crown of life ... He who overcomes will not be hurt by the second death. (Revelation 2:10-II)

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Pergamum: Antipas of Pargemos

Revelation 2:12-17

North of Smyrna was the large city of Pergamum (modern Bergama, Turkey), a major, cultic pilgrimage center for the worship of the gods. A remarkably ornate altar to Zeus that stood on the upper part of the acropolis at Pergamum may be the structure that the Master called "Satan's throne." He said to the believers of Pergamum, "I know where you dwell, where Satan's throne is" (Revelation 2:13). A continuously rotating group of priests offered up burnt sacrifices to Zeus at this altar twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. The cult of the god Asklepios also flourished in Pergamum, as did the imperial Roman cult. Idols filled the city.

The Master praised the believers in Pergamum for standing firm against the persecution. When challenged by the Roman authorities to deny the name of Yeshua, they did not. The Master congratulated them for holding fast to His name. He reminded them of a similar season of persecution that had befallen them a few years earlier:

You hold fast My name, and did not deny My faith even in the days of Antipas, My witness, My faithful one, who was killed among you, where Satan dwells. (Revelation 2:13)

According to Christian tradition, John the apostle appointed Antipas to serve as bishop over the community of believers at Pergamum. Antipas is a Herodian name, and he was probably a Jewish believer. A no-longer extant document about the martyrdom of Antipas told about how the Roman governor at Pergamum convicted Antipas for some offense against the gods. The governor ordered him put to death at the temple of Artemis in what may be the most unique martyrdom of the first century. In the courtyard of the temple, the priests kept a large, hollow oven of bronze in the shape of a bull. Some sources indicate the strange, cultic object was used in connection with exorcisms. Alternatively, perhaps the priests ordinarily used the bronze bull to cook the meats from sacrifices offered to the goddess. They heated the bronze bull by kindling a fire beneath it. Apparently, the people of Pergamum felt that Antipas and the Christians had particularly insulted and blasphemed the gods. To appease the gods, the governor ordered Antipas to be cooked alive inside the bronze bull. They stoked the fire beneath the bull until the metal glowed red from the heat.

The death of Antipas must have happened early in the reign of Domitian or, perhaps, even earlier. The Master referred to it as an event in the past. He reminded the believers of Pergamum of how they had stood fast for His name during that earlier time of persecution "in the days of Antipas," and He encouraged them to do so again.

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Thyatira: Incognito in Pargemos and Ti’atira

Revelation 2:18-29

An assembly of believers congregated in the city of Thyatira (modern Akh-isar, Turkey), not far from Pergamum. One solution to avoid persecution as a Christian was to avoid appearing to be a Christian by participating in the pagan life as much as possible. Some believers in Pergamum and Thyatira opted for this solution.

In Pergamum, certain believers held "the teaching of Balaam, who kept teaching Balak to put a stumbling block before the sons of Israel, to eat things sacrificed to idols and to commit acts of immorality" (Revelation 2:14). In Thyatira, some believers followed the teaching of a false prophetess who "teaches and leads My bond-servants astray so that they commit acts of immorality and eat things sacrificed to idols" (Revelation 2:20). Under the circumstance of the Domitian persecution, deviant doctrines that reduced one's chances of being identified as a Christian were naturally appealing. The Master encouraged the faithful in Pergamum and Thyatira to stand firm. He told them not to tolerate the deviant practices in their midst. He warned that He Himself would come and punish them if they did not.

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Sardis: Denial in Sardis

Revelation 3:1-6

A short distance up the Hermes River from Smyrna sat the ancient city of Sardis. Sardis (modern Sart, Turkey) was once the capital of Lydia. In the days of the apostles, the Roman proconsul presided over the province from Sardis. Apparently, that proconsul acted quickly on the new law against the Christians. Most of the believers in Sardis failed to make a solid stand for the Master's name. Many of those accused of being Christians saved their lives by denying Him. Yeshua said, "I know your deeds, that you have a name that you are alive, but you are dead" (Revelation 3:1). Only a few people remained in Sardis who had not "soiled their garments" (Revelation 3:4). To those who refused to deny the Master's name, Yeshua promised, "I will not erase his name from the book of life, and I will confess his name before My Father and before His angels" (Revelation 3:5). This last promise alludes to a well-known saying of the Master about denying and confessing Yeshua's name:

Everyone who confesses Me before men, I will also confess him before My Father who is in heaven. But whoever denies Me before men, I will also deny him before My Father who is in heaven. (Matthew 10:32-33)

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Philadelphia: Standing Firm in Piladelfiya

Revelation 3:7-13

Just east of Sardis, believers lived in the Jewish community of Philadelphia (modern Alasehir, Turkey). Philadelphia (ФЛабЛфеа) means "city of brotherly love," but the believers in Philadelphia did not feel much love from their brothers in the larger Jewish community. When the new law condemning Christians and exonerating Jews reached Philadelphia, members of the local Jewish community informed the authorities about the believers in their midst.

The believers in Philadelphia faced the trial bravely and kept the Master's words about persevering. Yeshua praised them, "You have kept My word, and have not denied My name" (Revelation 3:8). The Master encouraged them to "hold fast what you have so that no one will take your crown" (Revelation 3:11). He promised to set them as pillars in the Temple, and He said, "I will write on him [who overcomes] the name of My God, and the name of the city of My God, the new Jerusalem, which comes down out of heaven from My God, and My new name" (Revelation 3:12). As for the Jews of Philadelphia who betrayed the believers by informing the authorities, He said, "Behold, I will cause those of the synagogue of Satan, who say that they are Jews and are not, but lie—I will make them come and bow down at your feet, and make them know that I have loved you" (Revelation 3:9). Again, the term "synagogue of Satan" refers to the informers' capacity as accusers of the brethren. It is not a blanket denigration of Jewish synagogues. The term those "who say that they are Jews and are not" functions as an ironic reproach against the informers who stated that the believers were not Jews and, therefore, guilty of the crimes of atheism and Christianity. When they did so, Yeshua struck those individuals off of the list of Abraham's descendants.

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Laodicea: Wealthy in Ludkeya

Revelation 3:14-22

Southeast of Philadelphia, Laodicea stood at the head of the Lycus Valley. Believers lived in Laodicea as well as nearby Hierapolis and Colossae. The earthquake of 62 CE collapsed all three cities, but the wealthy city of Laodicea quickly rebuilt. They even refused disaster relief funds from Rome.

If the persecution reached the Lycus Valley, the Master made no mention of it in His address to the believers of that city. He was more concerned with their spiritual apathy. Their wealth and prosperity made them spiritually numb. Yeshua said, "I know your deeds, that you are neither cold nor hot; I wish that you were cold or hot. So because you are lukewarm, and neither hot nor cold, I will spit you out of My mouth" (Revelation 3:15-16). Several Bible commentaries suggest that the Laodicean water supply provides the imagery behind the Master's rebuke. Geothermal hot springs burst out of the earth at Hierapolis at a temperature of 95 degrees Fahrenheit. Colossae had coldwater springs. Laodicea, by contrast, had neither hot springs nor cold springs. The city seems to have received its water supply partially by aqueduct. Strabo observed that the water at Laodicea was extremely hard, though drinkable.

The Lycus Valley offered fertile pastures for livestock. Local industry produced wool and dark red woolen cloth called colossinum (named after Colossae). The hot springs at Hierapolis provided calcium-rich waters, which dyers used to set their dyes, and mineral deposits, which they used to make blacks, purples, and scarlet. Laodicea exported the local wool and a variety of fabrics to the Roman world. The Laodiceans also exported a medicinal powder for the eyes. The two industries may underlie the symbolism in the Master's rebuke to the Laodicean believers:

Because you say, "I am rich, and have become wealthy, and have need of nothing," and you do not know that you are wretched and miserable and poor and blind and naked, I advise you to buy from Me gold refined by fire so that you may become rich, and white garments so that you may clothe yourself, and that the shame of your nakedness will not be revealed; and eye salve to anoint your eyes so that you may see. (Revelation 3:17-18)

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Coemeterium Domitillae

In the year 95 CE, Domitian convicted his niece Domitilla of atheism and banished her to serve out a life sentence on one of the Pontine islands off the west coast of Italy. According to Cassius Dio, he sent her to the island of Pandataria. According to Eusebius, he sent her to the island of Pontia. Either destination is possible. Both are part of the Pontine islands off the western coast of Italy.

Emperors were in the habit of banishing prominent women of the court who fell into disfavor to the island of Pandataria (modern Ventotene). It was an upper-class prison island with small villas and Roman estates. Emperor Augustus banished his daughter Julia the Elder as a punishment for adultery. She lived out her days there in a mansion. Tiberius banished his grandniece Agrippina the Elder to the same island. Nero banished his wife Octavia to Pandataria and had her put to death on the island. Many of the Roman matrons banished to Pandataria never returned.

The island of Pontia (modern Ponza) has a similar reputation for high-profile exiles. Gaius Caligula's older brother died in exile on Pontia. Gaius Caligula banished his sisters Agrippina the Younger and Julia Livilla to Pontia for their participation in a conspiracy to overthrow him. As late as the fourth century, Christians still performed pilgrimages to the island of Pontia to visit the rooms that were once supposedly occupied by Flavia Domitilla during her exile. Domitilla had not been in exile for even a full year when Domitian died. (Coincidentally, one of her own former servant played the primary role in the assassination of Domitian.)

The next emperor immediately canceled all Domitian's banishments and allowed those exiled by him to return. We do not know if Domitilla returned or not, but some scholars have identified one of the earliest Christian catacombs in Rome with her name. The catacomb called Coemeterium Domitillae is near Flavian property. If these identifications are correct, they suggest that Domitilla donated burial space for believers martyred under her uncle's tyranny, thereby establishing the first official "Christian" cemetery in Rome.

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.

Catching Up on Correspondence

The death of Domitian did not bring an end to the persecution. Rome did not repeal the law against the Christians until the days of Constantine (306 to 337 AD). Nevertheless, the death of Domitian did remove the believers from the focus of attention.

The community of Christians in Rome had space to breathe again. Clement of Rome turned his attention to catching up on some correspondence. In his epistle to the Corinthians, he apologized for the long delay in replying:

The Assembly of God which sojourns at Rome, to the Assembly of God sojourning at Corinth, to them that are called and sanctified by the will of God, through our Master Yeshua the Messiah.

Grace unto you, and peace, from Almighty God through Yeshua the Messiah, be multiplied.

Owing, dear brethren, to the sudden and successive calamitous events which have happened to ourselves, we feel that we have been somewhat tardy in turning our attention to the points respecting which you consulted us. (I Clement I:I)

References

This lesson is adapted from Daniel Lancaster's teachings in The Sent Ones, as presented by First Fruits of Zion for the Torah Club.